Open Access
Review
Table 2
Summary of comparative analysis of manufacturing techniques between traditional and advanced fabrication methods for LDS.
| Method | Advantages | Limitations | Resulting properties and benefits | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Methods (VIM, VAM) | Established and widely used techniques Relatively low cost and scalable for bulk production. Good compositional control (especially in VIM/VAM). Suitable for large ingot production |
Coarse-grain structures due to slow cooling. High defect susceptibility to cracks, shrinkage porosity, blowholes, hot tearing, and inclusions. Requires extensive secondary processing such as rolling, forging, and machining. Limited microstructural refinement. Limited ability to produce complex geometries |
Exhibit lower ductility, toughness, and fatigue resistance due to large/ coarse grain sizes and residual defects Mechanical properties may be inferior to those achieved by advanced methods without postheat treatment |
[26,67,69–72] |
| Advanced Methods (NNS) | High cooling rates (>50°C/s) enable the formation of refined or nanecrystalline microstructures. Lower defect tendency (shrinkage, porosity, cracks, and hot tearing) compared to conventional casting. Near-net shape reduces material waste and the number of machining steps. Faster processing time. | Limited to smaller/medium component sizes. Requires specialized equipment. Process optimization is still needed for complex alloys. |
Finer grains and improved homogeneity. Enhanced strength, ductility, and fatigue resistance. Better performance compared to traditional casting routes. |
[65,88,90–93] |
| Advanced Methods (MA + SPS) | MA+SPS eliminates casting-related defects. Produces highly refined microstructures (submicron or nanecrystalline). Ability to synthesize non-equilibrium or metastable phases. Rapid densification with minimal grain growth (SPS). Tailored properties by adjusting milling and sintering parameters |
High equipment and operational costs. Limited scalability to very large parts. Potential contamination from milling media. Requires precise control of process parameters. |
Exceptional grain refinement (submicron to nanocrystalline alloys), which enhanced strength, ductility, hardness, and fatigue resistance. Improved property-to-weight ratio. Potential for enhanced performance in structural and high-performance applications. |
[53,98–101] |
| Advanced Methods (AM) | High cooling rates and rapid solidification result in refined, equiaxed or even nanocrazalline microstructures. Produce intricate near-net shape structures for immediate use. Allows complex geometries & design flexibility. Reduce material waste and machining. Allows property tailoring through scanning strategies and process parameters. |
High equipment and operational costs. Limited scalability for very large components. Sensitive to process parameters (risk of porosity, residual stresses). Process optimization is needed to achieve optimum mechanical properties. Requires advanced technical expertise and quality control. |
Fine or equiaxed grains. Enhanced strength-to-weight ratio. Enhance strength, ductility, fatigue resistance, and mechanical performance compared to traditional methods. |
[46,48,102–105] |
VAM: Vacuum arc melting, VIM: Vacuum induction melting, NNS: Near Net Shape, MA: Mechanical alloying, SPS: Spark plasma sintering, AM: Additive manufacturing.
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